Spanish history of transfer from fascist dictatorship to modern political system, astounds with its swiftness and bloodless nature. Transformation happened not as a result of revolution (military coup) but on the basis of liberal-democratic consensus. And moreover, the decision of liquidating the dictatorship was made most likely by its creator – generalissimos Franco.
The main role in this transformation was played by three people. All of them ended up at the peak of power by accident, and one of them was already dead by the start of events. It is interesting to see how it happened in the historical context.
Franco. An accidental caudillo
In January of 1936 in Spain at the elections the National front has won with the participation from Communist party. New makeup of the parliament has conducted radical policies, hoping with extreme means to start solving deep problems in the economy of the country.
Francisco Franco
However, already after July of the same year, conservative generals headed by Jose Sanjurjo have begun a well-prepared mutiny against the republic (Second Spanish Republic (1931-1939) – republican period after deposition of monarchy until establishment of the dictatorship).
Strictly speaking, Francisco Franco (1892-1975) became a dictator as a result of circumstance. Leader of the military coup against the republic Jose Sanjurjo y Sacanell died in the plane accident. Generals conducted elections in the closed circle in which Franco won unexpectedly, even though he not only wasn’t noted among ideologists of the coup but even supported the republic.
The title of the generalissimos and caudillo (leader of the nation) was given to him later, when he started to “clean the house” in the country, which many political groups have turned during the 30s into a real social polygon.
From Wikipedia. After the upheaval, nationalists headed by Franco turned for help to Germany and Italy, while communists received aid from USSR and many leftist parties in Europe and the world. A Civil war has started in Spain. In 1939, after the win by the military, dictatorship has spread all over the country political parties were banned aside from the fascist phalanx supporting Franco.
The atmosphere in Spain at the time was best captured by author George Orwell in his novel Animal farm (published in 1945 it is a novel-parable in which animal evolution is portrayed, with animals exiling from animal farm its previous owner and eventually moving from freedom to dictatorship), it was written based on personal observation. By the way, it was acquaintance with Spanish reality of the period that converted optimistic socialist, which Orwell was , into a gloomy pessimist, author of 1984.
Let’s also note that of all the dictators of the XX century, Franco was the only one who sincerely and almost with a certain pride called the Spanish political system created by him “totalitarian”.
Caudillo was able to retain his power after World War II and even secure asylum to some prominent representatives of other fascist regimes.
From Wikipedia. Spain retained neutrality during WWII even though it sent a volunteer blue division to the eastern front.
Franco became needed as a bastion, opposing main “world evil” of the time, who’s role was reserved for communists. Franco has led a real war with “communist evil”. Executions of anarchists and other “global terrorists: of the time in Spain were conducted on a regular basis. Franco didn’t have any other opposition. Even more risky in this situation was any attempt of demolition of old institutes of power, since the attempts of a “revanche” looked inescapable.
Francoism didn’t look defeated in the second half of the 20th century. Moreover, in the 1950s the country ended in the center of post-war economic boom, which took over all countries of the western Europe. And nonetheless, despite the absence of signs of crisis, researchers claim that the regime was outdated by the 1960s. One of the reasons named was unequal distribution of fruits of economic development, which went to narrow oligarchic groups, close to Franco himself and his entourage. As for Spain, the definition from Soviet political economy textbooks about “state-monopolistic capitalism” wasn’t that far from the truth.
Caudillo, with his regime, looked like a striking anachronism in western Europe of 1960s, which rapidly changed under pressure from new post-war generations. But within this system sprouts of future political regime were being formed. Technocrats were being appointed to ministerial positions more and more often, as they were able to work under new conditions. One of such appointees was Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez, who was destined to play a key role in the process of transformation of Spain from dictatorship.
Suarez. An unexpected hero
Fernando Herrera Tejedora
Being an attorney by profession, Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez started his political career, having joined the National movement in 1958, – the only legally acting party under Francoist regime, aka Spanish phalanx.Having ascended the ladder of a party functionary, Suarez took managing positions on radio and television, but in the 70s he went into political shade accepting the position of a head of National tourist company.
It is considerd that the godfather of this career and Suarez himself was Fernando Herrera Tejedora, an influential representative of Opus Dei – secret religious society created in 1928 in Madrid by catholic
From Wikipedia: Goal of Opus Dei is to help believers attain sanctity in their everyday life, by doing regular mundane things, including professional activities. Critics, among which are catholic priests, think that Opus Dei is a dangerous organization. At the dawn of its existence Opus Dei was named the new heresy due to its call for everyone’s sanctity. The danger is mostly seen in secrecy and closed-nature of Opus Dei. In the print media and internet sources there are publications which state that Opus Dei utilizes many practices, common to sects.
This organization had the support of Vatican and became an object of persecution during the times of Spanish republic in the 1930s. The society gained popularity relatively recently, after publication of the book Da Vinci Code (a novel written by American writer and journalist Dan Brown, published in April of 2003) which portrayed Opus Dei as the center of international influence, created and controlled by the Vatican.
Opus Dei is named as the force that stood behind appointment of technocrats into Spanish government in the 1960s. But there is no need to exaggerate the influence of that “secretive organization”. And moreover to give it political influence. During caudillo’s times he was the only one who had real influence.
Famous specialist on history of Spain and European fascism American historian Stanley Payne in one of his books writes that a month before his death Franco personally told Suarez that National movement won’t outlast it’s creator, and democratization is inevitable.
Thus it wasn’t Opus Dei that controlled caudillo, but Franco who used this organization as an alternative platform.
On November 22 1975 generalissimos dies and the post of general secretary of the National front is taken by Fernando Herrera Tejedor. But he too almost immediately dies.
Juan Carlos. Sudden monarch behind the curtain
In this critical for Spanish history moment Spanish king Juan Carlos I (son of the head of Spanish royal house don Juan, count of Barcelona, grandson of Alfonso XIII) enters the stage.
Juan Carlos I
Formally Spain became a monarchy back in 1947, but prudent Franco has left the throne unoccupied, preserving for himself the post of a regent, and in 1969 he advanced to the throne 31-year old Juan Carlos, against the will of his father under condition that, Juan Carlos will take the position after Franco’s death.
What other backdoor agreements there were, remained unknown, but the candidacy of Suarez to the positon of prime-minister was advanced by the chairman of the royal assembly Torquato Fernandez Miranda close ally of Juan Carlos and convinced proponent of taking-down of Francoist regime.
On July 3rd 1976 Suarez was appointed to the position of prime minister by the order of king Juan Carlos I.
Support of the monarch and guarantees from old institutes of power made cleanup of mamagement apparatus impossible. The transfer to democracy itself was realized on the basis of old Francoist legislation, which despite all its cruelty, made provision for possibility and mechanisms of overlooking of acting public order; it was the monarch who gave sanctions for this overhaul.
Carlos provided succession and legitimacy in the eyes of Francoist top brass and highest bureaucracy, which at that point still had the ability to choke any initiative at inception. But support of the monarch made Francoist cortes (assembly of government and party employees, militarymen and clergy) approve of the project of legislation of political reform. This project got rid of major Francoist institutes, based on principles of corporatism. Instead principles of representative democracy were put into law.
In essence cortes’s signed a death sentence for themselves. But at this moment a completely different force stepped in against the project – radical opposition reliant on the streets. In the summer of 1976 the country was engulfed in the wave of mass protest and democratic movement. It became possible after creation in March of 1976 of Democratic coordination, that united 13 political organizations and unions; this group put forward a program of democratic break-up with Fracoism.
Pressure from downstairs allowed to advance forward a program of political reform, even though it cause serious opposition from orthodox Francoists. The streets called to boycott referendum on the law.
However, the boycott fell through. In December of 1976 94,2% of participants of referendum spoke in support of political reform. Suarez was able to win over democratic opposition. It had to leave behind “democratic break-up” in favor of the idea of “coordinated breakup. Essentially “the streets” agreed to conduct talks with reformists in the government and government apparatus.
Country for winners and losers
Suarez’s government was stepping on really thin ice of national solidarity, but it was able to keep consensus on the platform of national atonement that united various social and political forces: entrepreneurial groups, Francoist bureaucrats, catholic church, parts of the army.
Adolfo Suarez
Atonement became possible even on the hardest issue for Spaniards – issues of winners and losers in the civil war. The idea of atonement was supported by late Franco, who created an appropriate memorial, which still didn’t stop him from arresting and executing “anarchists” and dangerous troublemakers. And quite understandable motifs for retaliation remained in the political discourse of radical representatives of leftist opposition.
It was at this moment that Suarez decided to legalize Communist party, turning it from revolutionary forces into systemic political player. It was a very risky move considering it could cause unexpected reaction of the army. But it proved successful.
At the same time, for strengthening of his positions Suarez creates Union of democratic center – political party that wins at the elections of 1977, getting 34,4% of the vote.
Opposition has lost to Suarez due to its disunity. Socialists (Spanish socialist workers party) – received 29.2% of the vote while communists – 9.2%. Neo-francoists People’s alliance party received 8.3% of the vote. The share of those who supported old phalanx parties, also allowed to elections, made up less than 1% of votes. Thus once again was proven the rule, that widespread public support of authoritarian regime is a myth, that doesn’t stand the test of crises and democratic elections.
From Wikipedia: On December 15 1976 at the referendum in Spain a law on political reform in Spain was approved, in accordance with which, on June 15 1977 legislative cortezes were elected fro two chambers: congress of deputies and the senate. These were the first multi-party elections into the parliament after 1936, and the most votes 34% on them were received by the Union of democratic center created that year, body of which aside from former francoists was made up of members of left-center and center political forces. In August coalition transformed into a party and Suarez became its first head. Second place with the result of 29,3% went to Spanish socialist workers party.
Victory in the center combined with the hegemony of francoists in local cortes and their participation in central institutions of power. Nonetheless, this victory became a very important factor of changing economic system. It helped to introduce to public life new business groups which formed in the period of economic growth, but didn’t have a shot to be included into old systems. Newcomers quickly replaced old oligarchic clans from command heights of the economy.
Suarez continued to use the concept of national compromise, scaring communists and socialists with a threat of ultra-right coup. Thus, he managed to take of the issue of public reconstruction from the order of the day. Communists and socialists instead of radical reforms were forced to stand in defense of fragile democracy. Suarez also skillfully used the threat of civil war (country still remembered scary outcome of the 1930s). As a result he was able to secure cooperation of all parliamentrat parties and build real national consensus.
In October of 1977 main political forces of the country signed the so-called Moncloa Pact – a 1 year agreement which documented the necessity of acceptance and support of political and economic decisions outlined by the pact. By the end of 1978 when the terms of the pact expired, government was able to achieve bettering of currency-financial situation, having conducted tax and finance reform.
Pact Moncloa provided a possibility of development of new constitution of the country. Representatives of main parliamentary parties and Catalans had worked on its project. Participation of the latter was very crucial, since national-regional issue played a highly-important role in establishing of democracy in Spain. Government of Suarez recognized the right of national minorities to autonomy and constitution mentioned multi-ethnic character of the Spanish government and local languages.
From Wikipedia: Partial autonomy was given to Catalonia on Sep. 29 1977 and to Basque country on Dec. 31 1977, which became the evidence of rapture with the Francoist politics of old Unitarianism.
Against the course of autonomy were both ultra-right factions (who though that it threatens the breakup of the country) and radical nationalists who fought for full independence. Organziation of Basque separatists ETA represented at the time a real military force, capable and ready to break any agreements. Nonetheless in December of 1978 new constitution of Spain was approved at a referendum with majority of votes (87.7%). This mean death Francoism as a political system.
Thus ended political transformation. Yesterday’s radical opposition had to tale on itself political responsibility for the country. Due to this, Spanish socialist party gave up radical social transformations in favor of national consensus and pragmatism.
Socialists conducted a whole slew of social reforms, which helped conduct technological rebuilding of the economy. Also with the initiative of Spanish socialist party on January 1 1986 Spain joined EU and conducted a referendum on joining NATO. These initiatives ended political and social isolation of Spain. Victory and achievements of socialists demonstrated that “top management” can start reconstruction of
Authoritarian political regimes, however, it is unable to finish it, having made the processes imminent. At this stage this process should be overtaken by opposition which would end it without a risk of creating social conflict and breakdown of the country. Spanish socialist party passed such exam. Due to this democratic system in Spain now lasted much longer than Franco’s dictatorship (1939-1975).
From the editor. This is the first article from the cycle in which we promised to tell you about how the transit of higher power happened in other countries, similar to Kazakhstan in political character.
