Dictatorship of Portugal was built by an economic professor who didn’t like politics and politicians, preferring solitude and was destroyed by the military who didn’t like violation of their rights. Ideology of the new regime of the country however, was proposed by communists who, nonetheless ended up in political “retirement” pretty soon.
At the time of great geographic discoveries (XY-XYI) Portugal, thanks to its fortunate location became a key player in the competition for world domination. It secured Western Europe an exit from medieval vegetation and passage into becoming an engine of prosperity and growth.
From Wikipedia: “Starting from XV century the time of Juan I rule and House of Aviz, colonial expansion of Portugal started; Portuguese colonial empire has reached its zenith in the first half of the XVI century. In 1580 king Enrique dies and Portuguese throne goes into the hands of Spanish king Phillip II Habsburg. Until 1640 Portugal was part of Spanish kingdom. In the beginning of XVIII it participates in the war for Spanish inheritance. LIsboa agreement and Methuen treaty signed during the war in 1703 led to economic and political dependence of Portugal from Great Britain”.
But during that transformation Portugal itself has lost itself. In the 19th century it turned from world superpower into a European backcountry. Especially striking was its decay when compared to Britain, which was able not only to take advantage of the discoveries of Portuguese sea travelers, but establish control over vantage points of Portuguese economy.
A proverbial two-layer pie was established – Portugal itself ruled a vast colonial empire, carrying expenses for its upkeep, but most of the revenue received from exploiting of colonial natural resources, went to London, in the form of interest on Portuguese debt and government loans.
From Wikipedia: “In 1807 Napoleon I troops broke into Portugal and they were expelled in 1808 by English troops with the support of Portuguese patriots. XIX century in Portugal was marked with revolutions (Portuguese revolution of 1820, September revolution of 1836), civil wars (Miguelist wars, war of Maria da Fonte), sever struggle between supporters and opponents of constitution”.
The victims of ineffective system of administration were not only colonial (third place after Britain and France) part of Portuguese empire, but, namely the parent state itself. National deposits of natural resources, including deposits of high-quality minerals – iron, tungsten, manganese, tin were exported, and the resulting product from them was then imported into the country. The basis of the national economy has become agriculture, which due to the preserved system of semi-feudal relicts remained in the state of constant depression – half of all arable land area was vacant and the owners of the land tried to rent it or sub-lease it. This is why in the back drop of dynamic Europe Portugal, in the beginning of the XX century looked like a big relict.
From wikipedia: “Starting from the 2nd half of XIX century a republican and socialist movement is developing in Portugal. As a result of Portuguese revolution of 1910 Portugal becomes a republic”.
Antonio Salazar’s Estado Novo
Special role in this imperial construct was played by the military, who secured obedience of foreign territories and thus guaranteed a flow of resources into the parent country. Among them were both large ones” Mozambique, Angola, Guinea Bisau, as well as a multitude of islands and enclaves, each of which demanded at least a military garrison.
Military men were good at organizing coups, but couldn’t put in order even the simplest functions of the government. Thus there is nothing strange in the fact that in the end, power ended up in the hands of the finance minister Antonio Salazar.
From Wikipedia: Portuguese politician, prime minister of Portugal for 36 years (1932-1968) main architect ideologist and leader of the new government (port. Estado novo). De facto ruled Portugal from 1932-1968.
Having put government finances in order, professor of economics organized a real corporate government in Portugal, in which there was no opposition no freedoms, but outside attributes of democracy were present, including “free” elections, in which “political” parties even participated. In essence this was the first façade democracy – a state that displayed outside elements of political system for its qualitative systemic traits.
From Wikipedia: “New government” (estado novo) – a political regime, established in Portugal as a result of military coup of May 28 1926. After the coup, administration of the country went to general Antonio Oscar di Fragoso Carmona. In 1928 he invited Antonio Salazar to the position of finance minister, whose tax reforms secured increase of the state budget, government debt was cut, significant funds were allocated for economic development, public works, defense and social sphere. At the same time, a strict censure was enacted in the country, even US president John Kennedy was in the list of prohibited authors. Salazar often made two differing statements on the same subject – for oversea and for Portugal. Political police was enacted that persecuted any opposition.
Such state of affairs satisfied major political players and as a result Salazar was able to not only survive WWII but fit quite nicely into the reality of post-war Europe.
The main source of Salazar’s political power, in CIA analysts’ opinion, was the ability to build a balance of interests of main Portuguese family groups, that played main role in major fields of national economy.
USA’s intelligence services had no illusions regarding the nature of Salazar’s regime. Among de-classified and published documents of CIA, there are analytical notes of the late 1950s, which were prepared based on the results of one of the elections in which, despite all tricks, opposition candidate was able to receive up to 25% of the votes.
From Wikipedia: Serious opposition to Salazar first occurred at the presidential elections of 1958, when admiral Americo Tomas, supported by Salazar won, but general Umberto Delgado, heading the opposition was able to receive a quarter of all votes. As a result in 1959 direct presidential were cancelled and the right to select a president was given to electoral college.
“Civilian” analysts gave Salazar and his regime a year. But, having changed the election system, dictator stayed in power for another ten years and retired in 1968 and died two years later.
The real remaining opponents of the Portuguese revolution were communists. CPP created in 1921 (before Salazar’s ascension to power) was created as the only real opposition, that hasn’t tainted its reputation by cooperating with the regime. For that, its members paid with their lives and sentences in prisons, which were created on colonial island territories – far away from European partners.
From Wikipedia: “Portuguese communist party – is a leftist political party of Portugal. Established in 1921 as a national section of Comintern. It led a fight against dictatorship of Antonio Salazar under the lead of Alvaro Cunhal, with its heads being arrested on several occasions. IN 1970-1980s it was one of the larger political forces of the country.
Communists had no illusions regarding the nature of Salazar’s regime. Among the declassified and published materials of CIA were preserved analytical notes of the end of 1950s (after yet another elections despite all tricks, opposition candidate was able to receive up to 25% of the votes) in which authors gave Salazar maximum of a year. And even though this year extended for another decade, the fate of the regime was doomed.
The main reason for such confidence was the inevitable breakdown of the entire old colonial system, which Portugal created. It was aimed at creating resource monopolies, exporting raw materials directly for final sale markets. By CIA’s estimates around 7% of GNP went to supporting this colonial system. Also, huge human resources were invested there as well. Almost all of young people of Portugal served in the military in various parts of the globe, waging wars for preservation of the empire. At the end of 1960s there were constantly around 200 thousand people within the army, fighting primarily in African countries.
Army itself turned into an independent second society, in which a serious role was played by leftist movements of Marxist persuasion. Despite a widespread stereotype, Soviet apparatus didn’t play any serious role in disseminating this ideology. Military men simply realized that with such a colonial legacy, Portugal has no future.
Conservation of social and political systems happened in the backdrop of relatively high rates of economic growth and improvement of methods of strategic planning (Portugal practiced five year plan).
After Salazar’s retirement, analysts of CIA started to seriously examine scenarios of “perestroika” – an opportunity to reform the system by Salazar’s successor Marcelo Caetano.
From Wikipedia: “Caetano worked together with Antonio Salazar at the ministry of finance, helped create foundational documents of Estado novo in Portugal, occupied various administrative positions. He was appointed prime-minister after Salazar had a stroke, and largely continued his politics. After the deposition he lived in Brazil.”
Caetano had a chance. For six years he ran the country while serving as a prime minister. But he made a critical mistake at the most important front – military one.
In July of 1973 Caetano’s government passed a package of laws (about milicianos) with which it put graduates of universities, drafted for 2-3 years into the army, in a privileged position, compared to cadre officers, who went through hell and back in African jungles. The latter in order to receive a rank of a capitan, had to serve in the army for 10-12 years (including participation in colonial operations), for students, however passing of accelerated courses of half-year was enough.
This way, the government intended to radically change the social make up of the officers’ corps, diluting meritocratic but closed system with representatives from kindred aristocratic circles. However, after this decision a agitation and forming of secret societies has started within the army, of which the so-called “movement of captains” came out, which formed political order of the day and started to professionally prepare for a military coup.
From Wikipedia: “Based on official data army of Portugal at the time of “carnation revolution” counted 217 000 people, of which 179 000 – were land forces, including – 55000 in Angola, 60000 in Mozambique, 27000 in Portuguese Guinea. Portuguese airforce (18500 men, including a parachute division of 3300 people) had in their structure two squadrons of light strike aircrafts, around 100 helicopters and a squadron of attack jets. The navy (19 500 people, including 3400 navy marines) was represented by four submarines, 8 frigates and 6 corvettes”.
Secret police turned out to be powerless and already in the april of 1974 military convoys entered Lisbon.
Carnation revolution
Captains were preparing for a military rebellion, extinguishing which would take by their accounts several months. But there was no opposition. A coup turned out bloodless and eventually was dubbed revolution of carnation, which essentially became first in the list of flower revolutions. According to a legend, a flower merchant has put a carnation into a barrel of soldier’s rifle, and then following her example citizens started en masse to give military men red flowers and this symbol immediately spread around the country.
The reasons of such a success in the state that was a NATO member from the moment of inception of this bloc in 1949, caused suspicion among all observers, especially considering that the declaration was scheduled on the date of the start of military training of NATO. But published secret materials of CIA give us a reason to think that the coup was a real surprise for the US; and Henry Kissinger, who occupied the post of secretary of state at the time, a person who was great at spotting intriciacies of foreign policy and history, was caught by surprise. In his messages to management of the CIA, head of American ministry of foreign affairs demanded more information from the agency’s analysts, considering reports sent to him, something akin to New York Times.
The main problem faced by department of state of US at the time was the strategy of bulding socialism, which the officers not only announced, but sequentially started to implement on practice. Socialist drive had concrete reasons behind it. Part of the lower officers corps, fighting on the side of the parent state, was infected with the anti-colonial mindset, which at the time was the main driving force behind of the leftists around the world.
Political vacuum in the country has played its role. Parties destroyed or tainted by cooperation with the regime were taken from the order of the day, and Portuguese communist party was the only one from the list of old political parties left on the stage. Created back in 1921 it was able to endure repressions in the underground and to preserve its moral authority. As a result communists and their allies in the military ranks faced a difficult task of not only coming to terms with the building of bourgeois democracy in the country but also had to participate in its building.
The situation after the April revolution unfolded following a scenario that was eerily similar to development in Russia after the February revolution of 1917 (which in itself copied the events of the French revolution).
Just like Russia, Portugal in 1974 had several centers of political power spring up at the same time, the most important of which was the “movement of armed forces”.. Here, just like in a society there were few influential groups each of which was fighting for power.
Leader for an hour
At the initial stage military has transferred power to general Spinola, who until 1973 was the deputy head of the joint staff of the country, but was moved from his position after publication of the book Portugal and the Future. In it, general shared his experience of running Portuguese Guinea (currently Guinea-Bissau) and offered options for preservation of colonial empire though peaceful means. General didn’t consider the option of full emancipation of colonies (he didn’t see a political future for a country without colonies) but offered creating a soft cooperation with reliance on political powers recruited from the ranks of local citizens.
However, for 1973 Portugal even this mild proposition looked revolutionary, since on practice it meant dismantling of harsh administrative system of managing of overseas territories . A publicized but light in its consequence fall from the grace of the general has followed, which in the future became an ideal trampoline for his return into power after the carnation revolution.
Representatives of conspirers got in touch with Spinola, before the coup. Thus, already the next day after victory he headed the country (first in the role of the head of Assembly on national salvation, and then as a president). Spinola envisioned himself in the role of De Gaulle for new Portugal. He was also betted on by Americans which was evidenced by the contents of declassified messages. Still, Spinola didn’t succeed in that role. Already on Sep. 30th of 1974 he was forced to leave his post as a president after which national leader for an hour promised that crisis and chaos await the country.
The main problem of the revolutionary general was his attempt to preserve the empire (though with peaceful means). But if in 1973 it was too revolutionary, in a year it has already turned into reactionary – for revolutionary-minded officers and utopic – for guerilla leaders in colonies themselves. Former didn’t want to fight and the latter on the contrary were ready to build their states with arms in their hands.
15 years later, another dissident from the ranks of ruling elite – Boris Yeltsin was able to avoid this problem, get rid of the empire and remain in power in Russia.
Nonetheless Spinola had another chance. In February of 1975 program “movement of the armed forces” made a decision on “socialist choice” which worried influential groups both in Portugal and in other countries. The country remained NATO stronghold in the Atlantic ocean, and in the conditions of global resistance to USSR, domestic ideological choice of the Portuguese society had geopolitical significance.
On March 11 1975 to military units loyal to Spinola started mutiny, and soldiers appeared again on the streets of the capital. However, mutiny was quickly and decisively suppressed, and Spinola was forced to leave the country. He then, started the creation of Democratic movement for emancipation of Portugal, whose goal was to “rid the country off communists.
Ghost of communism
In Portugal itself at the time, leftist moods prevailed. Real political power in the country at the time transfers to Revolutionary council, which in the opinion of CIA analysts, was under a strong influence of communists. Temporary government is created, which makes decisions on nationalization of the banking system, as well as of large industrial establishments. An agrarian reforms is started in the south.
Much more sinister signs of revolutionary changes appear, as well as of cultural dynamism, direct democracy, movement for true popular rule.
Realizing the perspective of losing Portugal, US started to examine plans on excluding this country from NATO. But at this point Frank Carlucci entered the game, a diplomat on special tasks, who in the 60s and 70s often ended up in governments that went through difficult political changes. Carlucci offered to make a bet on leftists, not connected to communist ideology of the soviet type.
From Wikipedia: “Frank Carlucci – American government and political activist. Deputy head of CIA in 1978-1981, minister of defense of US in 1987-1989”.
Main ally of the diplomat has become socialist party of Portugal. Established in the German town of Bad Munstereifel in 1973 by members of the party Portuguese socialist movement, it was this organization that became the conduit for transforming of the country and establishment of parliamentary democracy.
Role of socialists strengthened after November coup a name given to events in Portugal that took place from 21 to 28 of November of 1975.
Crisis was provoked by the leaders of Socialist party, who came out of yet another (sixth) temporary government. They didn’t wish to participate in the coalitional government together with communists, since they though that they are implementing their own political scenario. And since communists and socialists had their own support among the military, citizens of Lisbon were faced with perspective of a new street war.
But that didn’t happen. Crisis soon ended with removing from power of leftist military men, who then spent a lot of time and effort by trying to answer the question “what was it?” but didn’t do it in freedom or even occupying positions in government structures.
Spinola also took to writing memoirs, after he changed his plans of armed struggle with communism and returned to Portugal and started writing books at his personal villa estate.
November coup of 1975 is considered the end of carnation revolution.
New Path
In April of 1976 a new constitution was passed in the country which determined limits of parliamentary democracy. First of all this legislation limited the role of military in political life of the country. Having played a significant role in its history, they had to remain in it.
Also included in the text of the document, was a line about intentions of building in Portugal a classless society, but it was a ritualistic offering, sacrificed to the altar of the heroes of revolution. In 1989 during one of the revisions of the document, it was excluded from the text, and with it other elements of revolutionary inheritance, which stood in the way of privatization.
Communists called the new political order a treachery, but at the moment they were on the cyrbside of political life. The tone was being set by two parties with the root “social” in their names. On the left it was socialist party, on the right it was social-democratic party (in 1983-1985 coalition of these two parties was in power in Portugal.
There are no materials on the activity of Carlucci in Portugal in the collections of declassified documents of CIA, which speaks more likely not on the absence of his activity but rather on the fact that time for declassifying it hasn’t come. However, there is a plethora of files and reports on the state of affairs in Portugal in the 1980s. They are all full of criticism in regards to perspectives of this government. And one of these documents even offensively depicts specialties of Portuguese “national character”.
A drain of qualified workforce out of the country continues. Salazar remains one of the most popular heroes of the country. But among opinion leaders is also his antipode – leader of the communists of the times of underground Alvaro Cunhal (under Salazar’s dictatorship he was arrested, subjected to torture and spent 11 years in prison. After the carnation revolution in 1974 Alvaro Cunhal became a minister without portfolio in transitional governments, was a deputy of the parliament. One way or another, the fact that Alvaro Cunhal, convinced opponent of post-revolutionary political system and a critic of betrayed revolution died at the age of 91 in Lisbon, while doing literary work, speaks of the success of transit of political system in Portugal. Portuguese revolution was the last real revolution in western Europe. Transformations of political systems in Spain and Greece that followed it were peaceful.
